Great Bridge

Guided Question: Explain what made the Brooklyn Bridge more historically significant than other bridges or as important as other technological breakthroughs of the late-19th century.

They said it couldn’t be done! What makes the successful building of the Brooklyn Bridge so incredible? Aside from the fact that for almost “fifty years after it was completed the Brooklyn Bridge reigned supreme as the most magnificent, if not technically the largest, suspension bridge on earth;” (pg. 543)  

The Bridge was a “wonder of Science,” an “astounding exhibition of the power of man to change the face of nature.” It was a monument to “enterprise, skill, faith, endurance.” It was also a monument to “public spirit,” “the moral qualities of the human soul,” and a great, everlasting symbol of “Peace.” (pg. 533-534)

At the time the bridge was completed, it was much longer than any other suspension bridge in the world. The towers which anchor the bridge to the ground were also the tallest structures in the entire Western Hemisphere. The finished bridge would prove to be not only an engineering marvel, but also a work of art of unparalleled style. The Brooklyn Bridge is without question a treasured historical landmark of New York and of man’s ingenuity to succeed.  

Americans had been talking about a possible bridge over the East River that separated New York City from Brooklyn “for nearly as long as anyone could recall…the idea for a bridge was exactly as old as the century, the first serious proposal having been recorded in Brooklyn in 1800.” (pg. 24) This proposed bridge, like countless other wished-for bridges of just about every make and size was never even started. The reason was as plain as the geography the bridge would encompass. The East River was “one of the most turbulent and…one of the busiest stretches of navigable salt water anywhere on earth.” (pg. 24) So any bridge would have to arch all the way across the river and be high enough to allow the tall massed sailing ships of the day to pass unobstructed. For the technology of the day, a bridge of this magnitude was just unimaginable!

If a bridge was ever completed between Brooklyn and New York the two cities would essentially become one. This was considered a good thing because the Union Pacific Railroad was going to make New York “the commercial emporium of the world” (pg. 26) linking east to West. A bridge here at this important spot would special. “It was to be one of history’s great connecting works, symbolic of a new age, like the Atlantic cable, the Suez Canal, and the transcontinental railroad.” (pg. 27) John Roebling, the man who would design the eventual bridge actually saw his work as being “the greatest engineering work of the continent, and of the age.” (pg. 27) But many were against the bridge proposal. Ideas such as dams and tunnels were proposed as better alternatives. Many engineers claimed that Roebling’s bridge was too costly and just “a wild experiment” (pg. 28) as well as questioning why only one engineer had been considered. Regardless, any bridge crossing the East River would have to be one of the greatest engineering feats of all time.

At the time that the Brooklyn Bridge was in the planning stage, many suspension bridges had been constructed throughout the United States and in Europe. But none was as ambitious in both the scope and size as the one Roebling intended to build. This bridge was going to be the longest and widest suspension bridge in the world. However, it was still very much up in the air as to whether Roebling’s “experimental” design and new type of bridge construction would be sufficient. The Bridge construction began in phases of construction that the public could not really see. The caissons that were used to prepare and build the supports for towers for the bridge were completed under water.

Many bridges had been built over many different rivers before the Brooklyn Bridge. But the architectural design and engineering of the bridge is the facet that makes it simply that much greater than all others in throughout the world. In its time, the Brooklyn Bridge was without question the most magnificent designed and built bridge anywhere.  This bridge was not the first suspension bridge or the first to use caissons to dig out the earth under a river. What made this bridge so impressive was the age in which it was constructed and the technologies available to build it. The immense size of the project was incredible. Roebling not only used, but often developed different innovative techniques in order to insure that the bridge would be strong, safe, and last for many years. But this bridge connecting Brooklyn and New York was to be more complicated and complex than any ever built. As the towers began to take shape, a common feeling was that they “would be the greatest structure in the world except for the Pyramids.” (pg. 232)  And The Brooklyn Eagle, a newspaper who strongly supported building the bridge stated:

“The most famous cathedrals and castles of the historic Old World are but pygmies by the side of this great Brooklyn tower. And it is our own city which is to be forever famous for possessing this greatest architectural and engineering work of the continent, and of the age.” (pg. 246)

Any technological breakthrough is a feat that should be celebrated. The Brooklyn Bridge was opened on May 24, 1883 to extreme excitement and fanfare. However, there were other technological advances during the time period in which the Brooklyn Bridge was constructed. Three major breakthroughs deserve mention as comparable in impact. The transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, Alexander Graham Bell made the world’s first telephone call in 1876, and the electric light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. Each of these will have a major impact on America and the world just as the Brooklyn Bridge had on bridge building, transportation, and America.

The transcontinental railroad connected the American East to the West. This led directly to a quicker movement of people and goods. Now farmers, ranchers, miners, and other businesses in the nation’s interior could easily move product to market and this led to westward migration and an industrial boom. As people migrated west cities grew and the frontier was soon to be closed. The electric light changed American lifestyles and industry. Americans no longer needed candles, kerosene lamp, or the sun for light at night. Businesses could now be opened longer hours, people could change their hours and stay up longer, and American culture would never be the same. Telephones made communication easier, more efficient, and in a way, almost instantaneous. People could now keep up with friends and family and better business communications would led to even more growth.

But the Brooklyn Bridge was a tower of majestic wonder overlooking the greatest city in America. The words used most often in its dedication ceremonies were “Science,” “Commerce,” and Courage.” (pg. 534) These are words that still ring true today. The bridge was a marvel of technology and innovation. It changed the way bridges were thought of and constructed. The ability to carry over 150,300 people and 1,800 vehicles across it on its opening day made it “The Eighth Wonder of the World.” (pg. 543) Although it may not have had the same impact on America and the world as other technological breakthroughs such as the light bulb and telephone, it still stands tall and impressive as a working model of American ingenuity 127 years later.  The Brooklyn Bridge is a treasured national symbol of American art, architecture, innovation, dominance, power, determination, and the fact “that we had come to stay.” (pg. 550)

Generous Enemies

Guided Question: Judith Van Buskirk argues in Generous Enemies that when the British invaded New York City in 1776 personal concerns often triumphed over political ideology.  What kinds of evidence does she provide to make her case?  How does her account of New York City challenge long-held assumptions about wartime experience during the American Revolution? 

New York City is today possibly the most important city in America just as it was in 1776 when both the Colonial and British armies took turns occupying this pivotal area. New York City was a mirror of the colonies with seemingly equal numbers supporting the Revolution or supporting the King while others just waited to see which side would prevail before aliening themselves to either side. In Generous Enemies, Judith Van Buskirk uses primary source documentation to reveal a story usually not found in American history textbooks. Both Loyalists (those supporting Britain) and Rebels or Whigs (those supporting the revolution) are “typically depicted as hostile opponents” but were in fact “in constant contact throughout the war.” (pg. 2) However, Van Buskirk portrays the City of New York as well as the countryside surrounding it, as a porous combative area in which people from both sides continuously transgressed across military lines. The reasons for such infiltration are as varied as the people living there. People crossed military/ occupation lines to help friends and family, pay social calls and make business profits. While military and political considerations were important, Van Buskirk’s book stakes the point that personal concerns greatly outweighed any others as the driving force behind New York’s Revolutionary experiences.

Except for just the very early portions of the war, New York City was in the hands of the British, while the Americans controlled much of the surrounding area. In those early days of Colonial occupation of New York City, Americans rooted out “adherents to the King’s cause.” And because so many residents of the city were Loyalists or “had no great stake in the Whig cause at all,” many patriot organizations arose with their “own style of refashioning the community, whether by persuasion, intimidation, or brute force.” (pg. 16) But by August of 1776 when over 130 warships of the Royal Navy finally sailed into the waters adjacent to New York, Patriots were streaming out in huge numbers. As the British took the city from the Americans “the tables had turned. Those who formerly had to lie low and swallow the directives of the American Revolutionary government could now let loose.” (pg. 21) The British would hold New York for the next seven years, a time that spanned almost the entire American Revolution. Citizens of New York, the city that British political and military leaders believed to be firmly in opposition to the American Revolution, actually turned out to be very opportunistic.

Van Buskirk observes that the military standoff surrounding New York City helped form civilian communities that were forced to function in close, continued proximity with each other. Each community, both Loyalist and Patriot, would test the limits of political and military authority. For the majority of the war, New York City was in the hands of the British, while the surrounding territory was controlled by the Americans. There are countless examples throughout the book of communication through enemy lines including notes, business trips, and even personal visits between Loyalists and Whig family members. Amazingly, in this area of military conflict there were ferry boats called “flag boats” that were allowed to legally carry people across rivers into New York City as long as they obtained proper permission from the political or military authorities in charge.

Van Buskirk points out that usually women had an easier time moving in and out of New York City than did men. “Considered weak and childlike, females could go where few males dared because they were considered no threat.” (pg. 51) Women would often cross military lines to attend to needs in the prisons, join officer-husbands in prison, and aid other family members. This led to “an impressive information network that operated continuously throughout the war.” (pg. 52) Information from female networks was not limited to high society women. Both slaves and market women were able to feed information to and about those they worked for “so successful were women in moving about the war zone that male spies sometimes dressed in women’s clothing to improve their chances.” (pg. 57)     

Conflicting loyalties distorted family relationships between both Loyalists and Whigs. Sarah and Catherine Alexander, wife and daughter of a Major General in the Continental Army and both stanch Whigs, received permission from both the British and American authorities to cross military lines in order “to pay a social call on family and friends.” They stayed with Sarah’s second daughter Mary, who married a “prominent Loyalist merchant.” (pg. 44) John Jay who was a delegate at both Continental Congresses had a brother who was politically loyal to the British. Indeed, many other influential Patriots had certain conflicting loyalties within their families. “General Gate’s sister-in-law; Gouverneur Morris’s half-brothers; General Lord Sterling’s daughter; and the hopeless jumble of the politically-variegated Livingston family” (pg. 70-71) found themselves in complicated family situations. Yet, they justified their own actions in dealing with Tories behind enemy lines by distinguishing a difference between their own relatives and friends and the rest of the population behind British lines. Families continued to act like families “despite obstacles thrown up by war.” (Van Buskirk, 44)

Van Buskirk also brings up the importance of business and profits in understanding why people moved so freely between the British and Americans lines. British and American authorities attempted to control markets with legislative action and military regulations. Merchants and other businessmen usually understood the difference between politics and profits and yet profits often were their main concern. “The opportunity of making hefty profits in high-risk ventures emboldened” (pg. 110) merchants to test the regulations of wartime market controls. “Americans had what the British wanted; the British had what the American’s wanted. Such a scenario of supply and demand…loomed over the New York area, effectively quashing the little measures busy legislatures passed to inhibit trade with the enemy.” (pg. 107) The business community desired to maintain “regular operations” (p.111) in order to maximize profits. Therefore, trading across enemy lines was commonplace. The British added restrictions and regulated prices in the marketplace which drove many towards smuggling goods. Many people in the American occupied areas also sought to avoid government regulations on trade “to warrant the close attention of state governors and congresses throughout the war.” (pg. 118) “States continued to revise their laws throughout the war, plugging holes and attempting to control improprieties in enforcement.” (pg. 123) Businessmen were just like the “soldiers or family members who determined which proclamations and laws would apply to them” (pg. 127-128) and generally acted in their own monetarily self interest.      

Generous Enemies confronts many deep rooted assumptions about New York during the American Revolution. Using primary source documents such as letters, diaries, newspapers, and official military and church records; Van Buskirk proves how interwoven communities that typically are portrayed as distant were in frequent contact. Although they lived in two unmistakably defined zones of military occupation, the citizens of New York City and the surrounding region often reached across military lines to help friends and family members, pay social calls, and conduct business. By studying the movement of Loyalist and Whig families, soldiers, women, and businessmen, Van Buskirk shows how personal needs usually won out over politics. In addition, she proves that the essence of everyday life during the Revolution was much more complex than historians have recognized.

Island at the Center of the World

Guided Question: Explain how the Dutch settlement in New Netherland laid the foundation for New York City and helped shape American culture.

History tends to be a story of those in power written by those same people. American history is no different. If the Native tribes in Eastern North American had united early on against the European invaders the story of America would probably be radically different. If the French had held on to the Louisiana Territory and not sold it to the United States for 15 million dollars, American history most assuredly would be different. And if the Dutch had realized just what they had in New Netherland, had anticipated English aggression better, and developed better relations between the West India Company and their own settlers, America quite possibly would be much different today.  

Most American students learn little more about the Dutch in America beyond Peter Minuit the Dutch colony’s first director who made one of the shrewdest (or dishonest, depending on your point of view) land deals in the history of the world when he purchased the area of Manhattan from the Natives for a paltry $24. Some also learn that the English captured New Amsterdam from the Dutch in 1664 without a fight. But beyond that, Americans know very little about Dutch contributions to American history and our way of life.

To understand the development and character of New York City and the United States it is imperative to first understand the early period of New York’s history that has generally received a short-shift by historians. In the book The Island at the Center of the World, Russell Shorto explains the story of the early years of Manhattan, when it was known as New Amsterdam, a rather short-lived Dutch colony. He succeeds in molding the argument that it was because of the Dutch who chose to settle in this area that New Netherland (New York state) and New Amsterdam (New York City) would ultimately become the first place in the New World where men (and women) of different races, faiths, and beliefs would live in relative unity and peace. This Dutch colony would also become one of the first areas to demand limited political self rule by the people. While not totally ignoring the role the British play in America’s development, Shorto points out that many of America’s most cherished beliefs come straight from the tolerance ideas formed in Holland.

Often students of American history have assumed that New York City’s history only really began when the English took over and brought some order. But that notion ignores the fact that America is the nation it has become “at least in part the result of a kind of genetic transfer from the one culture to the other, a planting of Dutch notions in one vital region of the future United States, from which they would be taken up into the American character.” (pg. 28) Shorto traces New Amsterdam’s makeup to Amsterdam and Dutch society which was the most tolerant in Europe at the time. It was a place where dissidents often came to escape persecution. It was a place ripe for idealistic thinkers like Descartes and Grotius to expound their desires “to shift the center of human effort from the church to the human mind.” (pg. 220)

The book is filled with examples of this Dutch enlightened atmosphere that would one day take root in America. Having recently broken away from the hated (Catholic) rule of the Spanish, the Dutch wrote in 1579 a “de facto constitution” that assured “each person shall remain free, especially in his religion.” (pg. 96) One of the earliest forms of modern politics developed in Manhattan when the population insisted that “wanted a voice in decision making…an insistence by members of the community that they play a role in their own government.” (pg. 171) The Dutch and particularly businessmen were proud about the concept of tolerance which “had developed into a cultural trait” and “acknowledged that knowing how to get along, fit in, accommodate, was good for business.” (pg. 126)

When New Amsterdam finally became incorporated in 1653 the government changed from autocratic company town into a formal city with a structure “based on Roman-Dutch law.” (pg. 258) This government became the “foundation that New York City was built on, and, spreading in every direction, it would color and mold the American continent and American character” (pg 259). With this “municipal government on Manhattan came an innovation whose effect would long outlive the colony itself, and help impress the island’s legacy into the American character…a two-tiered system” of “local government” which allowed nearly every resident of Manhattan to participate in a sort of “minority shareholder status” of “small burgher” in which each member supports each other doing away with “itinerant traders who used to sweep in, make a quick profit, and then leave.” (pg. 268) By forming these co-op burgher groups, typical European guiles (or Unions) never formed which ultimately allowed workers to branch out into other related areas. As these men rose up in wealth and power “American upward mobility was born.” (pg. 269)

Thanks to the Dutch influence on Manhattan there are still examples of small things that the Dutch brought to present-day American culture. Small biscuits called Koeckjes (“cook-yehs”) become cookies. A cabbage salad called koolsla became known as cole slaw. And our celebration of Christmas owes much to the Dutch who gave treats to their kids on December 6^th or the Saint Feast Day. This gift giving was pushed ahead a few weeks to align with the more commomly observed festival of Christmas with Sinterklaas eventually becoming Santa Claus. (pg. 270-271)

Shorto’s book, The Island at the Center of the World presents an outstanding and revealing look at the Dutch on Manhattan Island. Although much of the story centers on historical figures such as Henry Hudson, Peter Minuit, Peter Stuyvesant, and Andriaen van der Donck, the focus of the book is the story of the Dutch in New Netherland and how they influenced American history. Among the contributions the Dutch helped instill in America are religious freedom, tolerance, political self rule, burghers and municipal government, political bosses, upward American mobility, as well as countless Dutch words incorporated into the “American” language. In 325 pages Russell Shorto successfully reveals how Manhattan became the first multi-ethnic and upwardly mobile society in America and just how important and viable the early Dutch were to the development of a unique America and American culture for the future United States.

Up in the Old Hotel

Guided Question: What do Joseph Mitchell’s writings tell us about New York’s underclass during the early-mid 20th century? 

New York City in the early to mid 1900’s was a place of excitement, energy, wonder, prosperity, and at times, turmoil. There was spectacular growth with huge skyscrapers beginning to dot the landscape. Buildings and structures such as the Brooklyn Bridge, Empire State Building, and Grand Central Station were helping to turn New York become into one of the most famous cities in the world. But this time period was also a time of contrasts with calamities like the Triangle Factory Fire taking the lives of over 140 mostly immigrant women workers and the Wall Street collapse of 1929 that helped to usher in the Great Depression. Most people know about the history of New York City from movies, textbooks, and popular culture. This is a history of famous people doing famous things in a famous city. But Joseph Mitchell looked at New York very differently. In his book, Up in the Old Hotel, Mitchell revels a New York that most people are unaware of. Each of the articles throughout his book uncover and examine lives of most underclass new Yorkers in early 20^th century. Each of the unique characters, most living on the fringes of society, seem to jump off the pages as a New York City that no longer exists unveils before the reader’s eyes. The compassionate and purposeful writing style revels a story of New York City created by and lived in by very unique and spirited people.

There seems to be very little “welfare” similar to what we have in America today during this time period in New York City. New York’s underclass was often forced to rely on what they could find on the streets to survive. Occasionally the good will of some other more fortunate New Yorkers helped them to survive. Mazie Phillips is one of those who never tired from helping those in need. She and her two sisters own The Venice. Located on the Bowery, it is “a seedy moving picture theatre” where for a dime customers can see “two features, a newsreel, a cartoon, a short, and a serial episode.” (pg. 23) Mazie is exceptional in the fact that she cares so much for the bums and drunks as well as countless others who struggle to survive. Mazie often passes dimes out to the drunks so that they can get a drink and stop the shakes. She has been known to let these bums into the movie theater foe comfort as long as they behave. And almost every night after closing the theater Mazie tours the Bowery with soap and “a supply of nickels, dimes, and quarters” (pg. 37) to help the bums. She helps others to “flophouses” and she even works with Catholic nuns to help those in need despite being Jewish herself.

One story that was very interesting was A Sporting Man which recounts the adventures of Commodore Dutch. This man makes his living by selling memberships into the Original Commodore Dutch Association, a club that does nothing except hold “The Annual Party, Affair, Soiree & Gala Naval Ball of the Original Commodore Dutch Association.” (pg. 118) This ball is not designed to help others. It is solely to Benefit Commodore Dutch. He will not tell his real name other than it’s long and difficult to pronounce and that he is “the only person in the world that knows it.” (pg. 127) Dutch’s first job was in 1894 on a “dray” delivering furniture where he got a good understanding of day to day life in the Bowery. He was never a real Commodore or ever in the navy. The 1^st Gala Naval Ball took place on April 30, 1901 and included an orchestra with Dutch all dressed up in an admiral’s outfit. Over the years this ball became his only source of income. He sells memberships for whatever the person wants to give. The more they gave, the higher the rank they can earn in the association. He never forces anyone to pay, most just give as a way to help out this man, a former associate or friend.

Another story of interest was that of Professor Sea Gull. He is a homelessness man named Joe Gould. He is from a branch of family that has been in New England since 1635. (pg. 52) He is from Norwood Massachusetts and “comes from a family of physicians.” (pg. 65) He earned his A. B. and then told his mother he intended to “stroll and ponder” (pg. 66) He wants to own nothing and claims to be a Bohemian. Although he chooses his lifestyle, he suffers from “homelessness, hunger, and hangovers. He sleeps on benches in subway stations, on the floor in the studios of friends, and in quarter-a-night flophouses on the Bowery.” (pg. 52) He has been working for 26 years on a book called An Oral History of our Time, which includes “only things he has seen or heard.” (pg. 57) This book is not even close to being finished and his greatest fear is dying before he can complete the first draft. It is already “eleven times as long as the Bible” with over 9,000,000 words. (pg. 56-57) He has had money yet he despises money, feels uneasy with it in his pockets and yet must beg to get some for his survival.

The story that I liked the most was the first one titled The Old House at Home. This story is about the development of McSorley’s Saloon at the end of the Bowery which has had only 4 owners since its founding in 1854. The saloon is described as changing very little throughout the years. John McSorley was the founder. Old John wanted to create a saloon that reminded him of saloons back home in Ireland. He decorated the place himself and refused service to ladies. He catered to the Irish and German laborers by selling pewter mugs of ale for five cents along with a lunch of free soda crackers, onions, and cheese. Old John also knew important men and built up a loyal following. From Old John who founded the bar to his son Old Bill things stayed the same. Bill loved and adored his Dad and his “principle concern was to keep McSorley’s exactly as it had been in his father’s time. When anything had to be changed or repaired, it appeared to pain him physically.” (pg. 8 ) Bill “hated banks, cash registers, bookkeeping, and salesmen. If the saloon became crowded, he would close up early, saying, “I’m getting too confounded much trade in here.” (pg. 9) Bill refused to open a checking account and always “paid his ale bill with currency, largely silver.” (pg. 9) Bill also didn’t have a “fixed closing hour but locked up as soon as he began to feel sleepy, which was usually around ten o’clock.” (pg. 11) In 1936 Bill surprised everyone by selling the saloon to Daniel O’Connell, a patron and newly retired policemen. When Daniel died in 1939 he left the bar to his daughter Dorothy O’Connell Kirwan. The one theme that is common throughout the story was that change only happened when it was absolutely necessary! Customers were worried that Dorothy would make changes but soon found that their fears were baseless. “I know exactly how my father felt about McSorley’s…and so long as I am owner, no changes will be made. I won’t even change the rule against women customers.” (pg. 14) Dorothy’s husband runs the saloon and he understands the importance of keeping traditions in a place like McSorley’s, the loyal customers like it that way. And even though electricity was finally installed, they still prefer to use the old, dim gas lamps.  

Most of Mitchell’s stories are filled with people of an underclass society who struggle, yet find a way to survive in this big and lonely city. Each story has at least one character that comes alive in a manner that allows the reader to seemingly take on the characteristics of the person. Each has their unique outlook and often even a personal agenda that they are striving for. The cold and impersonal city of New York City becomes a diverse world of cultures and people struggling to survive and succeed however they can often taking care of others much as they took care of themselves. The collection of stories throughout Joseph Mitchell’s book is a wonderful record of a New York that many people would like to experience but is no longer available in the hustle of our modern world.